Function

A function transforms an argument into a result. The syntax for function types is designed to work well with the rest of the type system, and resembles the syntax for pairs, because the two are dual to one another.

A function type consists of two types — the argument, and the result — the former enclosed in square brackets.

type Function = [Int] String

If the result is another function, we can use syntax sugar to write it more concisely:

type BinaryFunction1 = [Int] [Int] Int
type BinaryFunction2 = [Int, Int] Int
// these two are exactly the same type

This is the preferred way to define functions of multiple arguments.

Functions are linear. While a globally defined function may be called any number of times, a function stored in a local variable can (and must) only be called once:

dec Add : [Int, Int] Int
def Add = [x, y] Int.Add(x, y)

// a global function may be called many times
def Six = Add(1, Add(2, 3))  // Okay.

// but a function in a local variable can be only called once
def Illegal =
  let inc = Add(1)
  in Add(inc(2), inc(3))       // Error!

Linearity brings a lot of expressivity that wouldn’t be possible otherwise. After all, the main purpose of Par is to explore where this new paradigm arising from linear types and duality can take us.

Non-linear functions are a planned feature, but in the meanwhile, the same can be achieved by a combination of iterative and choice types. Here’s an example, utilizing the full syntax of the language. If you’re reading in this documentation in order, come back here after reading up on:

Choice types.

Iterative types.

Forall types (generics).

do-expressions.

Or play with it regardless.
type Mapper<a, b> = iterative choice {
  .close    => !,
  .apply(a) => (b) self,
}

dec MapList : [type a, b] [List<a>, Mapper<a, b>] List<b>
def MapList = [type a, b] [list, mapper] list.begin.case {
  .end! => do {
    mapper.close
  } in .end!,

  .item(x) xs => do {
    mapper.apply(x)[y]
  } in .item(y) xs.loop
}

// Strings = *("1", "2", "3", "4", "5")
def Strings =
  let numbers: List<Int> = *(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
  in MapList(type Int, String)(numbers, begin case {
    .close    => !,
    .apply(n) => (Int.ToString(n)) loop,
  })

Construction

Function values bind their argument inside square brackets, followed by an expression computing the result.

dec Double : [Int] Int
def Double = [number] Int.Mul(2, number)

Multi-argument functions — or more precisely: functions returning other functions — can be expressed using the same kind of a syntax sugar as available for their types:

dec Concat : [String, String] String
// the same as `[String] [String] String`

def Concat = [left, right]
  String.Builder.add(left).add(right).build

Patterns for deconstructing pairs and units can be used inside the square brackets:

dec Swap : [(String, Int)!] (Int, String)!
def Swap = [(x, y)!] (y, x)!

Par uses bi-directional type-checking. It’s a style of type-checking that can infer a lot of types, but does not try to guess ahead. Functions are one of the types that it cannot fully infer.

def Identity = [x] x  // Error! The type of `x` must be known.

If the type of a function isn’t known ahead of time, at least the type of its argument must be specified explicitly:

def Identity = [x: String] x  // Okay.

For generic functions, read up on forall types.

Par has an unusual take on recursion, thanks to its ambitious stride towards totality. Naive recursion by self-reference is not allowed. In other words, a function can’t directly call itself.
def Infinity = Int.Add(1, Infinity)  // Error! Cyclic dependency.
Instead, recursive and iterative types are used for recursion and corecursion, respectively. Read up on them to learn more.

Par’s powerful begin/loop syntax is a single, universal construct for cyclic computations. It serves well in recursive functions, iterative objects, and imperative-looking loops in process syntax.

Forbidding functions from calling themselves may seem limiting at first, but begin/loop makes up for it with its perky handling of local variables, and its ability to be used deep in expressions, removing any need for recursive helper functions.

Destruction

Calling a function has the familiar syntax:

def Ten = Double(5)  // `Double` defined above

Functions with multiple arguments may be called by comma-separating the arguments inside the parentheses:

def HelloWorld1 = Concat("Hello ", "World")  // `Concat` defined above
def HelloWorld2 = Concat("Hello ")("World")

def HelloWorld3 =
  let partial = Concat("Hello ")
  in partial("World")

All three versions do the same thing.

The word destruction is especially apt here, due to linearity of functions. If a function is stored in a local variable, calling it destroys the variable, as discussed above.

Par Documentation

Function

Construction

Destruction